The Journal of Kashmir Studies

Institute of Kashmir Studies

University of Kashmir

ISSN: 09756612

Kashmiri identity and its cultural personality have been an outcome of its evolution as a community that runs into thousands of years of history. It is reflected in its ethnographic features, value orientations, cultural moorings, dietary habits, dressing patterns, social attitudes, folklore, language, literature, art and architecture, which evolved through a dynamic process. This evolution has happened in relation to forces and factors that have been internal to the place and were also borne out of its confluence with its own physical environment and the cultural communities and civilisational forces in the larger region around it.

Poetry deals with the truth of the changing times while pure history is a record of the facts as understood and interpreted by individual historians. Aristotle, therefore, considered poetry superior to all other varieties of knowledge, including history. The representative nature of poetry has been recognised as its chief characteristic since the times of the Greeks who called it mimesis. Since Kashmir history is an endless record of subjugation, denial of rights, and repression, Kashmiri poetry has remained steeped in mystic moorings of the soul for finding freedom from worldly life that was not deemed worth living. It was under the period under review that signs of the return to being in the world rather than being out of the world are seen. A brief excursus in the poetry of the period treats it as a source of history though it was written not to record the facts, but to attenuate the miseries of the people.

During the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth century, the discipline of history mainly focussed on the rise and fall of empires and the profile of the ruling elite. The Annals and the Marxist school added new dimensions to the art of historiography by emphasising upon the total history and the materialistic interpretation of history respectively. The Subaltern and the Postmodernist approaches carved a niche for recording the history of the marginalised sections of the society who had been ignored in earlier history writing traditions. Taking inspiration from the recent trends, the historians began to take interest in micro histories. It is in this context that the author has made an attempt to have a brief but empirical study of the Watal community in rural Kashmir. The paper endeavours to look into the socio-economic condition of this community during modern times with special reference to the continuity and change.

The cultural horizon of Kashmir is very broad. We have archaeological cultures right from Palaeolithic up to colonial times. The Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Megalithic, Early Historic and Later Historic periods are well attested by a large number of archaeological sites dotting the geography of Kashmir, which are documented by few archaeological reconnaissance studies. This paper is concerned with characterising the material culture of the stone ages of Kashmir. Palaeolithic tools were recovered from a large number of archaeological sites throughout the length and breadth of Kashmir. Stress will be laid on the rudimentary trade links with other cultures, particularly the Indus Civilization. Semiprecious materials like carnelian beads were found at Burzahom, pointing to long-distance links with outside cultures.

Kashmir has a syncretic culture, where the indigenous culture assimilated civilisational influences, mainly Persian, Central Asian and Indian. European influence also gained prominence, particularly after the establishment of full-fledged British Residency in Kashmir in 1885. It facilitated visits of many European officials, professionals, tourists, missionaries and adventurers to the Valley. Consequently, various localities and lifestyles became prominent in the Valley. The European influence was clearly evident in the construction of official establishments, residences, and commercial establishments, which came up during this period, and catered to European tastes. Local elites within Kashmir also tried to imbibe these housing styles and lifestyles. The present paper attempts to explore these developments in detail, and describes the modernisation and transformation brought about by these contacts in everyday life in Kashmir, with special reference to housing, food and clothing.

Mughals revived the stone architecture and built exquisite and grand structures in the Valley. The architecture here saw a fusion of regional features and imperial style, making it quite a distinct form of art. Moreover, the topography of Valley afforded garden making on Central Asian pattern that was utilized by the emperors. The present paper tries to explain how the region received a favourable space in the representation of empire.

Tibet is generally imagined as a Buddhist land, it is believed that to be Tibetan is to be Buddhist, conversely the idea of Tibetan Muslim seems to be incongruous. This paper gives a glimpse into the lives of ‘Tibetan’ Muslims in Kashmir. This paper is divided into two parts. The first part briefly discusses the history of Tibet and its spatial location as a region interacting with other Himalayan regions. In the subsequent sections, I discuss the history of ‘Tibetan’ Muslims, there presence in Kashmir and the contesting identity.The paper also attempts to explore their notions of belonging and the processes involved in being and becoming of a ‘Tibetan’ Muslim in Kashmir.

The inception of Dogra rule in Kashmir in 1846 led to an unprecedented agrarian crisis in Kashmir, as the peasantry in Kashmir was deprived from land rights and was subjected to backbreaking taxation. It was so because Maharaja Gulab Singh, the Maharaja of the newly constituted Princely State, by virtue of the Treaty of Amritsar, declared Kashmir valley his purchased property. Considered as private property, the Valley became a source of peculation and extraction to the dynasty and the class of landlords attached to it. Towards the 1880s, the British Government sought a greater role in Kashmir. Accordingly, a British Residency was established in Srinagar in 1885 and some reforms were initiated during the reign of Maharaja Pratap Singh. Perhaps, the most significant step was the appointment of Sir Walter Lawrence as Settlement Commissioner to have a fair settlement of the land revenue system. The settlement was completed in 1889 and the report was submitted to the Maharaja for its implimentaion. Despite the limited implementation of this settlement, it led to positive developments like the grant of occupancy rights for peasants, revenue collection in cash, and some curtailment of taxes. Additional reforms were carried out after the recommendations of the Glancy Commission (1931-1932), like the grant of propriety rights over Khalsa (state managed) land. However, the feudal exploitative system continued, and as compared to British India, agriculture remained extremely backward. It was only after 1947 that satisfactory land reforms were carried out, when the Nationalist government implemented its progressive programme of land to the tiller and abolished feudalism. Therefore, the present paper identifies the three main stages in the history of land relations i.e 1846-1894, 1895- 1933, and 1934-1953. Exploring these stages, the paper describes the nature and the character of the land reforms undertaken during the colonial and post- Kashmir Towards Golden Harvests | 105 colonial period. Based on this trajectory, the paper also explains the prospects and limitations of these reforms, and presents a critical understanding of the overall impact of such reform on rural Kashmir.

Floods have been a recurrent phenomenon in the Kashmir Valley. Their frequency and devastation is well documented in the ancient literary sources. According to ancient texts, floods in Kashmir were caused by seasonal rains and the melting of snow in summers. Such floods followed by famines, were a danger well known in old times and are more than once mentioned by Kalhana. Ancient and early medieval texts provide interesting information on floods and their management, including raising artificial embankments and timely dredging of river Jhelum. This paper attempts to study such floods and the response of the state against them, with special response to ancient Kashmir. The objective is to bring to light the techniques and the methods which were adopted by the state and society to prevent the damage caused by floods. The study can also provide some insights to the present day administration in mitigating the future flood furies

Shiva traditions are those whose focus is the deity Shiva and a Shaiva/Shaivite is a Hindu who follows the teachings of Shiva (Sivasana). Kashmiri Shaivism is a system of idealistic monism based on the Shivasutra. This system deals with the three-fold principle of God, Soul, and Matter, it is called Trikasastra or simply Trika. It is a system of ideal Monism founded by Vasugupta. Its central position is that there is only one Ultimate Principle, but this principle has two aspects, one transcendental and the other immanent. The present paper is an attempt to understand the growth and development of Shiva traditions in Kashmir, with special focus on Trikasaivism. The paper shall also make an attempt to explore the diversity of the tradition through the practices and the doctrine. It shall also attempt to show a distinctive religious imaginary that sets Trikasaivism apart from other Indian traditions.

From early times, the valley of Kashmir was noted for its handicrafts and the chief centre of Kashmiri industries was the city of Srinagar. Other localities were also famous for their special manufactures. From prehistoric times, agriculture was the major source of income to the state, and majority of the population of Kashmir lived on it, but at the same time, there were other non-agricultural pursuits adopted by a sizeable section of the population which was another source of income to the society and the state. The most significant non-agricultural pursuit adopted by the people of Kashmir was dast-kari (handicrafts), like the manufacture of the shawl, silks, carpets, and other woollen goods. However, Kashmiri shawls, without which no fashionable lady in Great Britain and the continent of Europe in the nineteenth century deemed her wardrobe complete, achieved a worldwide name and fame for delicate and elegant from quite early times. Despite this, the workers remained in a wretched condition. The merchants, on whom the artisans depended, exploited them mercilessly. Also, the state from time to time adopted a regressive taxation policy and thus made the life of the artesian community unbearable. The present paper examines the rise, growth and the downfall of the shawl industry in Kashmir from c. 1420-1846. Moreover, the paper also deals with the significance of this industry as a revenue generating agency of the state and highlights the condition of the shawl weavers.

The paper aims to explore the methods and the associated techniques of mass mobilisation used by the nationalist leadership during the Kashmir freedom struggle (1931-1947). The focus is on the use of religious idiom, pro-people demands, press–published from Punjab and locally, and progressive poetry. The paper observes that the methods of mobilisation were pragmatic, non-violent and adaptive. A varied and wide ranged idiom was used towards the achievement of freedom from exploitation, corruption and the autocratic system. And the movement was undoubtedly committed to the democratic, progressive and pro-people agenda.